The global history of secularism, the principle of separating government institutions from religious institutions, is a multifaceted narrative that spans continents, cultures, and centuries. This survey provides a detailed examination of its origins, evolution, and contemporary challenges, drawing on historical developments across various regions.
Defining Secularism and Its Historical Roots
Secularism, derived from the Latin saeculum meaning “a generation” or “an era of time,” initially referred to the temporal world as opposed to the eternal religious realm. George Holyoake coined the term “secularism” in 1851, advocating a nonreligious civic and ethical philosophy without the negative connotations of atheism. Precursors to political secularism existed in ancient Greece, where religion was prevalent in public life but not directly involved in governance, and in ancient India under emperors like Ashoka (3rd century BCE) and Akbar (1556–1605), who promoted religious tolerance.
In medieval Europe, St. Augustine’s The City of God delineated the divine “City of God” and the earthly “City of Man,” laying conceptual groundwork for secular thought. The Reformation, led by figures like Martin Luther and John Calvin, further advanced this separation by challenging ecclesiastical authority and internalizing religion as private conscience. The Peace of Westphalia (1648), ending the Thirty Years’ War, established foundations for modern nation-states and religious tolerance, while John Locke’s A Letter Concerning Toleration (1689) provided a philosophical basis for state neutrality in religious matters.
Western Developments: The United States and France
In the United States, secularism is enshrined in the First Amendment (1791), prohibiting the establishment of religion and guaranteeing free exercise. Thomas Jefferson’s “wall of separation” metaphor, articulated in his 1802 letter to the Danbury Baptists, has been pivotal in jurisprudence, with cases like Everson v. Board of Education (1947) and Engel v. Vitale (1962) reinforcing church-state separation. Despite this, debates over school prayer and religious symbols persist, reflecting ongoing tensions.
France’s laïcité, formalized by the Law of Separation of Church and State in 1905, emphasizes state neutrality and exclusion of religion from public life. Rooted in the French Revolution, it faced recent controversies, such as the 2004 ban on religious symbols in schools, highlighting tensions between secularism and religious freedoms, particularly for Muslim communities.
Middle Eastern and Turkish Contexts
In the Middle East, religion was central to pre-modern political identity, supported by systems like the Ottoman Millet system. The 19th century saw European colonial influences, such as British and French occupations, promoting nationalism over religious identity. Turkey’s laiklik, established by Mustafa Kemal Atatürk in 1923, modeled after French laïcité, included reforms like abolishing the caliphate and adopting the Latin alphabet. However, recent shifts, such as lifting headscarf bans in 2008, reflect challenges to assertive secularism under leaders like Recep Tayyip Erdoğan.
Egypt experienced secularism during British occupation (1882–1952), with intellectuals like Ali abd al-Raziq advocating for state neutrality. The Wafd Party, initially the Hizb ‘Almani (Secular Party) in 1919, combined secular policies with nationalism. Yet, Islamist movements like the Muslim Brotherhood (founded 1928) have challenged secular governance, especially post-Arab Spring.
Asian Perspectives: India and China
India’s secularism, enshrined in its 1950 Constitution and reinforced in 1976, guarantees freedom of religion and prohibits discrimination. Influenced by Nehru’s neutrality and Gandhi’s pluralism, it aims to manage religious diversity. However, Hindu nationalist movements, evident in the 1992 Babri Masjid demolition, threaten this model, with debates over Nehruvian versus Gandhian approaches ongoing.
China’s secularism, shaped by communist ideology since 1949, promotes atheism while recognizing five religions under state control. The Cultural Revolution (1966–1976) suppressed religious practices, but post-reform policies, including Document 19, allowed controlled expression. Xi Jinping’s Sinicization policy aligns religion with Chinese culture, particularly affecting Christianity and Islam.
Latin American Dynamics
Latin America, historically dominated by Catholicism, saw secularism emerge with 19th-century independence movements. Uruguay, with laws like the 1861 nationalization of cemeteries, is the region’s most secular, reflecting European-style laïcité. Recent trends show declining Christian identification, with Chile dropping from 84% in 2006 to 63% in 2019. Progressive policies, like Argentina’s abortion legalization, reflect rising secular movements, though evangelical growth counters this trend.
African Trajectories
Africa’s secularism has deep pre-colonial roots, with societies like the Azande and Ibos separating political and spiritual roles. Colonialism introduced European legal systems with Christian influences, transforming state-religion relationships. Postcolonial Africa saw secular constitutions, but many, like Nigeria’s northern states adopting sharia law post-1999, faced challenges. Human rights issues, such as Zambia’s 1991 declaration as a Christian nation under Frederick Chiluba, highlight tensions between secularism and religious governance.
Global Trends and Contemporary Challenges
Globally, secularism is enshrined in over 70 national constitutions, reflecting its utility in managing religious diversity. However, religious nationalism, evident in India’s Hindutva movement and Middle Eastern Islamist politics, challenges secular governance. Debates over religious symbols, like France’s headscarf bans, and the rise of desecularization, where religion regains public influence, complicate its implementation.
Comparative Analysis
The following table summarizes key developments in secularism across regions:
| Region | Key Historical Development | Contemporary Challenges |
|---|---|---|
| West (Europe, US) | Enlightenment, Reformation, Peace of Westphalia (1648) | Debates over religious symbols, school prayer |
| France | Law of Separation (1905), laïcité | Headscarf bans, balancing freedoms |
| Turkey | Atatürk’s reforms (1923), laiklik | Shifting policies under Erdoğan |
| India | Constitutional secularism (1950, 1976) | Hindu nationalism, Babri Masjid demolition |
| China | Communist atheism (1949), Cultural Revolution | Sinicization, state control of religions |
| Latin America | 19th-century independence, Uruguay’s secular laws | Decline in affiliation, evangelical growth |
| Africa | Pre-colonial separations, colonial Christian influences | Sharia law, Christian nation declarations |
| Middle East | Colonial nationalism, Atatürk’s model | Islamist resistance, Arab Spring outcomes |
This table highlights the diversity of secularism’s implementation and the varied challenges each region faces, reflecting the global complexity of the concept.
Conclusion
The global history of secularism is a dynamic narrative of negotiation between religion and state, shaped by historical, cultural, and political forces. From its Western origins to its adaptations in Asia, the Americas, Africa, and the Middle East, secularism continues to evolve, addressing contemporary challenges like religious nationalism and diversity management. Understanding this history is crucial for fostering inclusive governance in an interconnected world.
